Portfolio #14: Abstracts and Articles (Cont)

PORTFOLIO #13: Abstracts

"Academic Articles are part of the genres that teachers can write if they want to do research if they want to study from "authentic material". We are going to analyse them, so get ready for an interesting description of ARTICLES. Not only do FORMAL (academic) ARTICLES share these features, but also they are headed by ABSTRACTS. So, let's delve into this "new genre". An abstract is an independent text that comprises the most important concepts of the paper, the purpose of the research, the state of the art, what is missing, and the results of the investigation."

The following Padlet contains more information about Abstract.

Made by Macarena Carrizo, Luz Fernandéz and Eliana González

Writing an abstract. (n.d.). The University of Melbourne. Last visited: October, 24th, 2020. Available at: https://services.unimelb.edu.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0007/471274/Writing_an_Abstract_Update_051112.pdf

The abstract. (2020). The University of Southern California. Last visited: October 24th, 2020. Available at: https://libguides.usc.edu/writingguide/abstract.

From my perspective, an abstract is not only a summary of my published paper. For that reason, I have to think the most minimal details and keywords I want to include on it.  First, it is relevant to express effectively and correctly the keywords of my research as a starting point to provide to the reader an idea about what I am writing. Second, an abstract contains between 150-250 words. That is why I have to be direct and clear with the given information. Third, if the abstract is well-written, the text will be a great help for those readers who want to use my research in their productions. Moreover,  It will lead the reader to get the essence of my paper and decide if he/she wants to read the full text.

PORTFOLIO #12: Articles

If you click HERE you will have access to a short text that refers to ARTICLES.

⇝ Exercises and Examples ⇜

 

A. Match the topics (1-10) below with the titles (A-K) on the next page. There is one

extra title that you do not need.

1. A healthy diet. F  /  6. Genetic Engineering. →J

2. School Exams.→H  /  7. Drug-taking. →C

3. Eating out inexpensively. →K / 8. An outdoor activity. →E

4. The Internet. →B  /  9. How to attract a man. →G

5. A famous person. → I  /  10. A successful career. →A

a. How to Reach The Top

b. Do You Need To Be Connected?

 c. The Crack In Our Schools

 d. Mouth-watering Recipes

e. Is Jogging Bad For Our Health?

 f. An Apple A Day Keeps The Doctor Away

 g. To Flirt or Not to Flirt? - That is THE Question

 h. A Testing Time

i. The Man Behind The Prime Minister

j. Would You Like To Be Cloned?

 k. Cheap and Cheerful Grub

B. Match the following first paragraphs with the titles on the next page.

1. It is now official that they are the reason man has AIDS. Scientists agree that although Chimps do not suffer from AIDS themselves, eating them, as is common and considered a delicacy in some countries, is the reason the virus is passed on to humans. d. They ARE carriers of HIV

2. It is said that everyone has the ability or potential to write that blockbuster that will ensure our fame and fortune. Now a bus-driver from London has done just that and proved the point by writing a novel that has already been nominated for the prestigious Booker Prize. g. We All Have A Best Seller In Us 

3. After a hectic morning shopping, all my friend and I wanted to do was to sit down, drink a cup of tea and have a cigarette. Easy enough you might think, but not so. Every coffee bar, café and fast food restaurant we looked in, did not allow smoking. It seems us smokers truly are the pariahs of society. a SOCIAL OUTCASTS 

4. Eco-friendly vehicles will soon be a fact of life. No more popping into the local garage for £5.00’s worth of petrol. Instead, we will be plugging a battery into a spare socket at home, filling up with water from the tap, or using whatever idea the scientists come up with. Great you might think. But is it really possible that no giant corporation will be making money out of us?e. The Future Of Oil Companies

5. One of the most unusual places that I have visited on my travels around the globe is Petra in Jordan. Nicknamed ‘The Rose City’, as the colour of the rock changes throughout the day, depending on the angle of the sun, it is also fascinating because every structure except one is built out of the rock of the mountains. The exception is a temple built by the Romans, who obviously did not have the instincts of the Nabataeans.f. BUILDING SIGHTS

6. They are two famous film stars in their own right, who between them have been married seven times. After starring together in “Elizabeth”, they are now divorcing their respective partners to marry each other. They say it was an instant attraction that is much deeper and more intense than either have ever experienced before. So what makes this time different? I went along to see them both at the Hilton Hotel to discover their secret.c. Love At First Sight 

7. The British are said to be the most watched people in the world. Video cameras on nearly every set of traffic lights, on motorways, on street corners, car parks, football grounds and shopping centres - to name but a few - they cannot make a move without being seen. For a country of people that refuses to have Identity Cards as they consider them an invasion of privacy, why do they tolerate this? h. Are They Intrusive? 

8. They say there is nothing like a woman scorned, and after the exploits of Polly Metcalfe, they might just be right. Her partner left her not just for another woman, but a woman half Polly’s age and Polly was miffed, to say the least. What did she do in reply? Cut all his clothes in half and destroyed one of each pair of his shoes. b. Revenge Was So Sweet

 

C. Read the following first paragraphs and think of an appropriate title for each one.

1. TITLE: Christmas Is Coming

It’s that time of year again! Lots of expense, your patience tried to its utmost limits thanks to

being in such close proximity to your family, over-eating and over-drinking - perhaps overindulging generally - receiving presents you don’t really want and seeing relatives you don’t really want to see. They get wheeled out every year for a free meal and a sherry and drive you mad with their complaints. How to avoid all this? Do something different - go on

holiday and let someone else take the strain.

2. TITLE: Leprosy - Still A Mystery

The oldest known disease to man, and the first to be identified, is on the increase. It is now

prevalent in twenty-four countries, and still doctors are unsure what causes leprosy. There is a general consensus that it could be contracted through the respiratory system, but as yet there is no solid evidence. On the other hand, it could be spread by touch. Leprosy is curable if detected in the early stages, but what are the symptoms?

3. TITLE: The Art Of Writing

The joy of writing a long, newsy letter to a friend, a short thank-you note or even a letter of

complaint, seems to have disappeared nowadays. People just pick up the phone, fax or send an e-mail instead of composing something in their own handwriting, which is much more appreciated by the person receiving it. It shows thought, care and consideration but people, or their way of life, are changing.

4. TITLE: Change Your Life

Dieting seems to have become a way of life for many people, particularly women. It is said

that at any one time three out of four people are on a diet, convinced that this is the magic

formula, and that they will finally look like that model on the television they so envy. What

they do not seem to realise is that they might well lose weight but will inevitably put it all

back on - often more weight than they lost in the first place. The whole exercise is futile, and

people never seem to realise that to lose weight permanently, one needs to change one’s

entire eating lifestyle.

5. TITLE: Lessons Or Cassettes?

Learning another language is not an easy process - different word order, irregular verbs, those

tricky prepositions and difficult to pronounce, strange looking vocabulary. There are also

many methods on offer to accomplish this feat - so many in fact, that it can become confusing and it's hard to decide which is the best way for you. Courses on cassette, evening classes, private lessons, a language school, move to the country of the target language (an extreme method, perhaps), a correspondence course or a pen friend - the list is endless and it is like a jungle trying to decide what to try. 

 

D. In the following paragraphs, only the supporting ideas are given. The paragraphs are

followed by three possible topic sentences. Circle the letter of the sentence that would

best introduce the paragraph.

 

1. B. At one time, robots were only found in science fiction books and films.

Today, it is a science fact that technology has advanced to the point where anything is possible. Used as a means of increasing productivity, many factories are switching to

automation - R2D2 does not require holidays, a bigger office, sick pay, a pension, and, most

importantly, he does not go on strike.

a. Star Wars is alive and well and living in our factories.

b. At one time, robots were only found in science fiction books and films.

c. Robots, once a fantasy and every housewife’s dream, have become a part of our lives.

2. C. Underground homes can be cost effective and energy efficient. 

Although initially building a subterranean home is more expensive than a conventional home, in the long run it can save the owner a great deal of money in heating and air-conditioning costs. These homes require much less energy, as the temperature of soil is relatively stable and concrete walls store the sun’s heat, but keep the place warm at night.

a. Underground homes are not a new idea.

b. Underground homes are increasing in popularity.

c. Underground homes can be cost effective and energy efficient. 

3.c. Wherever we sit, stand, sleep or walk, we are engulfed by invisible to the naked eye mites.

Two million microscopic bugs live in our beds, making a meal of our bed linen and anything

else they find on the sheets. Our wardrobes support a breed of moth that not only eats

through our clothes, but disguises itself by weaving a ‘coat’ from whatever it is eating at the

time. This system breaks down when it moves from one garment to another, but is still

extremely successful. Our eyelashes support a whole ecosystem, and these three are just the tip of the iceberg!

a. If you think you are clean, think again.

b. Most of the time we only worry about the insects we can see.

c. Wherever we sit, stand, sleep or walk, we are engulfed by invisible to the naked eye mites.

4. A. Have you ever wondered about time?

We set so much store by it, and rush around to be in different places at the precise time we

are meant to be there. Deprive people of a watch or clock, and most of them have no

conception of what the time really is. It is man made and man imposed. People used to go to

bed when the sun set, and rise when the sun came up. In antiquity, man had no timepieces

but worked with the seasons - the flooding of the Nile meant irrigation of the crops and

therefore the populace could be fed. The rural Egyptian did not care if this happened at eight

o’clock in the morning or four in the afternoon; of paramount importance was the season.

a. Have you ever wondered about time?

b. Is time two or three-dimensional?

c. Whether it is a Rolex or a Timex, is it really significant?

5. B. They are a necessary evil but nine out of ten people are frightened to death of them.

We all want pearly white, even, straight teeth, but all eat the wrong foods and drink liquids

full of sugar. How many people do you know who have actually wanted to become dentists?

Yet they are everywhere and we all at some point in our lives need them, however long we

put off that visit. It is usually when the pain becomes so bad that we finally venture into their

surgery, quivering at the knees and shaking like a jelly. Have you ever noticed too, how that

pain miraculously disappears once you are there?

a. How many people are suffering from mercury or lead poisoning from all those fillings?

b. They are a necessary evil but nine out of ten people are frightened to death of them.

c. Don’t you just dread the sound of that drill?

When you have checked your answers, write a title for each of the paragraphs.

Cook, J. (2002): Articles CAE (CPE), Macmillan Education. Retrieved from One Stop English. Available at: https://www.onestopenglish.com/cambridge-c1-advanced-cae/exams-article-writing-cae-and-cpe/145069.article

 

It is also fairly obvious, I have to take time to polish my writing skills and in order to be likely to produce in the long term better writings such as articles. That is the reason why I have to learn and include more writing skills in my productions to develop successful writings. On the one hand, learning procedures to write helps me to gain confidence as a student. Moreover, it will guide me to express more effective my ideas. On the other hand, as a future teacher, I will know that I have enough tools to encourage my students to work their linguistic competence, create new content and share with proud their material with others. 

Portfolio Entry #11. Writing strategies: Hedging and Boosting

The following videos define some concepts of hedging and boosting and the importance of academic research writing.

HEDGING

Example 1 

Categorical claim 

The issues highlighted in this study are applicable to all participating institutions.

Hedged claim 

The issues highlighted in this study may be applicable to many participating institutions.

Example 2

Categorical claim 

Government support will assure the spread of new knowledge and the skills necessary to use the internet to thousands of people in rural areas.

Hedged claim 

Government support may help with the spread of new knowledge and the skills necessary to use the internet to thousands of people in rural areas.

Example 3 

Categorical claim

The study proves the link between smoking and lung disease.

Hedged claim

The study indicates/suggests a (possible) link between smoking and lung disease. 

Example 4 

Categorical claim

The number of unemployed people will continue to raise as the poor economic situation persists.

Hedged claim 

The number of unemployed people will probably continue to raise as the poor economic situation persists.

Example 5 

Categorical claim

This (and subsequent) studies led to the conclusion that the GTP itself must be the elusive base, and therefore to the proposal of the GTP-as-base mechanism (Schweins et al 1994, 1995).

Hedged claim

This (and subsequent) studies led to the conclusion that the GTP itself may be the elusive base, and therefore to the proposal of the GTP-as-base mechanism (Schweins et al 1994, 1995).

BOOSTING

Example 1:

Clearly, these sale figures show a definite increase in consumer confidence, which will undoubtedly have an impact on our share price.

Example 2: 

Employees will always respond positively to such circumstances.

Example 3: 

Certainly, this has had an impact on learning outcomes.

Example 4:

This will have an impact on future research in the field.

Example 5:

These figures prove that there has been strong growth as a result of policy change.

Academic writers resort to hedging and boosting to distinguish opinion from fact and evaluate their assertions in acceptable and persuasive ways. An important aspect to take into account when writing an essay is the choice between the use of hedging and boosting. On the one hand, hedging will help the writer make a statement without believing it is true. The use of verbs such as "indicate", "suggest", appear"; adverbs like "often", "quite", probably"; or modal verbs like "may", "can", "might" allow the author to acknowledge there are more opinions than his, avoiding, in this way, categorical statements. On the other hand, boosting presents a strong point of view. Verbs such as "show", "prove", "evidence"; adverbs like "always", "definitely", "certainly" or modal verbs like "will" or "should" permit the writer to describe a higher level of confidence about what he is saying. Although a piece of writing can do without these two elements, choosing between them will make your writing more interesting.

Podcast

       

        

  Ver en Vocaroo >>

Sources:

AWUC (August 18th, 2015) Hedging in Academic Writing (video). Retrieved from YouTube. Available at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=N_gM_GNU0Rw&feature=emb_logo

Griffith University (August 26th, 2015) Learn English - Hedging and Boosting (video). Retrieved from YouTube. Available at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VU-KgiVsAxY&feature=emb_logo

Speaking for myself,  I am learning to develop my critical thinking in deep as a way to transmit and communicate a clear message to the audience through my writings. In this case, I have learnt about the relevance of hedging and boosting. First, I need to focus on my ideas to express my thoughts. Second, I have to be careful with the selection of my words and vocabulary.

Portfolio Entry #10: Essay

        Finally at home?

Wars, hunger, violence, insecurity and persecution are some of the reasons that annually lead thousands of people to leave their countries of origin in search of the best living conditions. Besides, the influx of refugees to Europe has increased considerably. Places where human rights do not exist or peace is not a way of living from Asia or Africa. Along the time, millions of asylum seekers have crossed the border of their country not only to find another alternative to survive but also to feel safe, be free, work, study, live with their loved people in peace as well. However, the influx of the origin of these migrations differs in opinions that build positive or negative barriers among the beliefs and thoughts of citizens that involves social, political and economic decisions of the political leaders around the world.

The causes of their growth are primarily associated with the increasing number of refugees who come from countries. They are looking for improving the conditions of their lives to escape from cultural, political, religious or social conflicts, for instance, Syria and Afghanistan in Asia or South Sudan in Africa by the conflicts and persecution of the civil war. According to the United Nations “An unprecedented 70.8 million people around the world have been forced from home by conflict and persecution at the end of 2018. Among them are nearly 30 million refugees, over half of whom are under the age of 18”. This line states that the war has resulted in the enormous displacement of peoples who have been forced to escape to other places in the world, searching for help to survive.

According to effective political decisions, few countries try to find a solution to asylum seekers. A clear example of union and empathy is Germany. On the one hand, The Prime Minister, Angela Merkel, analyzed the complex crisis that the country was passing through as a consequence of the uncontrolled refugee arrivals to its lands and borders and how that impacted their social, economic and political stability. On the other hand, Germany has been working with refugees who need help and give them access and tools to incorporate in german society to guarantee a better life. Besides, this country facilitates asylum seekers access to education, decent employment and freedom. Germany is a committed country that has elaborated successfully a plan of multicultural integration, for instance, “More than 10,000 people who arrived in Germany as refugees since 2015 have mastered the language sufficiently to enrol at a German university” the Guardian reported. “More than half of those who came are in work and pay taxes. Among refugee children and teenagers, more than 80% say they have a strong sense of belonging to their German schools and feel liked by their peers”.

Although many countries are opening their doors to welcome refugees as Germany, it is often that many Governments are not agreed to be a host country. Following the events, countries like Italy or The United States of America displace the possibilities to include and give them another opportunity to access a second homeland. Apart from that, they continue building walls to provide a fictitious sense of security at a local level; they mainly function as a theatre which tries to convince the population about inexistent effectiveness. The supposed benefits are less than the adverse impacts which they produce on the lives of people; the most affected by these fences are those who live in the shadows of the barriers. The consequences go from racism, xenophobic violence and discrimination. Instead of, gaining from this diversity in ways which promote peace and respect for human rights in the society.

In conclusion, it is important to determine the boundaries that challenge the political decisions of governments. Also, civil society has to provide and gain empathy in their social consciousness from this diversity. As a beginning to fade from refugee issues, it is necessary to promote peace and respect for human rights since everybody has the right to be treated equally and fairly. Hence, this world needs conscious citizens to build upon shared values and see in diversity, not a threat, but rather an enrichment. Real diplomatic cooperation among countries must be promoted. On the one hand, it is necessary to include appropriate political actions with the asylum of refugees in life-threatening situations. On the other hand, international and local laws must be executed to save people and they do not have to hide this problem under the carpet. To sum up, these issues are being delayed and thousands of innocent people die.

 

Bibliography

Retrieved from The Guardian. Last visited: September 29th, 2020. Available at https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/aug/30/angela-merkel-great-migrant-gamble-paid-off

Retrieved from the United Nations. Last visited: September 28th, 2020. Available at https://www.un.org/en/sections/issues-depth/refugees/

Portfolio #9: Writing Project- REFUGEES

We Refugees | By Benjamin Zephaniah

Speaking for myself, the poem we refugees makes reference when someone has to run away because in his/her country they are at risk. People are so blind that we cannot see that we live in a beautiful world. Unfortunately, it does not matter since there are a lot of vulnerable people who are not being protected. There are many reasons why a person decides to flee, such as the suffering of human rights violations or persecution, sexual or gender orientation, violence, war, poverty, hunger, natural disasters, etc. Refugees can be anyone as a woman, a man or a child in every part of the world. It is so cruel that their freedom, feelings, religion, culture or thoughts are not respected in their country because of some bad leaders´ propper political or economical interests. The following line states "Nobody is safe, All it takes is a mad leader". This aspect of the poem reflects the role of the local government that can not protect them from dangers. For that reason, a person starts thinking of escaping to another country. Moreover, those people had not an alternative and they decided to live in another country, without the guarantee to find that safe place where he or she could feel free, work, study, live, join a family, etc. Most people in the world have had the hard reality of leaving the place where they grew up. The following line states: "We can all be refugees, nobody is safe". That is why, as an Argentinian citizen, I feel that a part of me is a refugee because my great grandfather escaped from Italy because of the war. The poem generates me a context that gives me a window into the speaker's suffering and hope. It is easy to read the sorrow in this line “I am told I have no country now, I am told I am a lie”. On the one hand, these journeys can also be full of danger, uncertainty and fear. On the other hand, all start with the hope for a better future for everyone.

Refugees| by Brian Bilston

The poem concerns the thoughts of many people who consider that receiving refugees is a problem for society. This belief shows the lack of empathy for those who were forced to leave their country because of hostile reasons. Unfortunately, it is common to hear comments regarding these ideas nowadays, for instance, “We should make them go back to where they came from, they cannot, share our food, share our homes, share our countries” are some of the lines stated in the poem. Moreover, most racist people not only think that the government must not protect foreigners but also they expect them to obligate refugees to return to their countries. Consequently, as readers, we consider the poem as an initial point to make people reflect on how destructive they could be while spreading hate through their speech or opinions related to Refugees.

If we take a look at the poem from bottom to up we can realize that it has a different meaning. It all depends on the direction that you read it. In this case, if readers start from the bottom to up, they will find a positive and marvellous message about fraternity and hope. In this way the poem allows us to reflect on the suffering of a refugee and it creates a context which contributes to raising awareness. Besides, it changes the view about the pain and effort made by a refugee while trying to find a secure place. The poem invites us to place ourselves into the refugees´ to see and feel the sorrow and desperation they suffer in order to have a second chance, for instance, “We need to see them for who they really are, Should life have dealt a different hand, These haggard faces could belong to you or me” is one of the phrases stated in the poem that makes reference to people’s tolerance. That is why we consider “Refugees” as an influential piece of writing to show the warm side of society. Moreover, it shares the view that even though we all come from different places and experiences, we are equals. Consequently, we can build a place to live in peace and safety together where it does not matter the religion, political beliefs, economic issues or cultural differences since we are part of a unique world.

Macarena Carrizo, Luz Fernandez and Eliana González.

..............................

Study Notes.                            

 By Macarena Carrizo, Luz Fernandez and Eliana González.

According to the general project, I start thinking about the significance of recognizing and understanding what happens around us. That is why the poems make me travel to those unsafe places where human rights are vulnerable and how necessary is to spread the terrible conditions that refugees have to pass. The poems provide me with the conceptualizations of some ideas. First, the experience of human life around the world and throughout history. Second, it opens and exposes me to understand how complex we are, as humans, and the consequences it implies. Besides, it will help me to open my mind, set a clear and objective point of view and start developing my ideas in my essay. Speaking for myself, writing is not as simple as it seems. Everybody can write but there are few people who can transport you to that specific place and feeling that expose me to those settings of reflection.

This task makes me reflect on the power of words since they are a bridge to transport us to different places, feelings and situations. Moreover, I always value how important is a text that transmits to the reader a message and it allows me to see and feel the positive or negative facets of humans being throughout ideas, events, memories and stories.

Portfolio Entry # 8 bis. The Study of Language

Yule, G. (2014). The study of Language. U.K.: Cambridge University Press

✭ CHAPTER 1 & CHAPTER 2

            

✭ CHAPTER 1

 The origins of language

In most religions, existed the belief that language was provided by God. In this sense, it was a gift from the Lord. The idea was then, that if the language was God-given, any human would speak it spontaneously. 

Regarding the natural sound source, primitive words could have been imitations of the natural sounds which early men and women heard around them. This type of view is called the “bow-wow” theory. Words that sound similar to the noises they describe are examples of onomatopoeia.

We might also be rather sceptical about a view that seems to assume that a language is only a set of words used as “names” for things. It has also been suggested that the original sounds of language may have come from natural cries of emotion such as pain, anger, and joy. Basically, the expressive noises people make in emotional reactions contain sounds that are not otherwise used in speech production and consequently would seem to be rather unlikely candidates as source sounds for language.

Another proposal given by the social interaction source involves natural sounds that have been called the “yo-he-ho” theory. This theory proposes that the sounds of a person involved in physical efforts may be the source of language, especially when the physical effort involved several people coordinating their interaction. So, early humans developed a set of rhythmical sounds: hums, grunts, groans, and curses. The main idea of this proposal is that it places the development of human language in a social context. As a result, groups are necessarily social organizations, and to maintain them, there was some kind of communication needed.

Besides, the social and religious origin, there are some sources connected to the physical and practical features One the one hand, the physical adaptations in which humans possess, especially those that are different from other creatures. Eg, *Human teeth: are upright, not slanting. (/f/ or /v/ sounds. One the other hand, the tool making source. From this view, language might have originated from manual gestures. Apparently, there was a migration from hand to mouth.

The last theory is the genetic source, it explains that babies are born with a special capacity for language. It is innate, no other creature seems to have it. There is an innateness hypothesis that points to something in human genetics as the source. But then, the investigation of the origins of language turns into a search for the special "language gene" that only humans possess.

✭ CHAPTER 2
Animals and human language

This chapter analyses different properties of human language in order to understand the reasons why human language is so unique and different from the animals' languages. There are several properties that make the human language unique. First, Reflexivity that explained the capacity to use language to think and talk about the language. Second, a displacement which refers to the human ability to talk about the past and future time. It allows language users to talk about things and events not present in the immediate environment. Third, arbitrariness which mentions an aspect of the relationship between linguistic signs and meaning. There is no natural or iconic connection but rather an arbitrary one. There is no chance to guess a word’s meaning by looking at its shape. Fourth, productivity. It is humans' ability to create novel utterances and new expressions to describe, precisely, new situations or objects. Fifth, it is the cultural transmission which is the process by which a language is passed on from one generation to the next. Language is acquired in a culture with other speakers, but it is not inherited like our physical features, eyes, or hair, for example. On the contrary, animals are born with a set of specific signals that are produced instinctively. Sixth, duality refers to Human language is organized at two levels. This is called duality. There is a physical level where humans can produce different individual sounds. However, those forms don’t have intrinsic meaning. If we combine them, we will obtain another level producing meaning. So, at one level, we have distinct sounds, and, at another level, we have distinct meanings.

Among other creatures, each communicative signal appears to be a single fixed form that cannot be broken down into separate parts. If these properties of human language make it such a unique communication system, quite different from the communication systems of other creatures, then it would seem extremely unlikely that other creatures would be able to understand it. And no other creature has been observed "using language". It is in this abstract sense that we say that language is uniquely human.

✭ CHAPTER 11

Discourse analysis

CHAPTER 11, Discourse analysis from ElianaGonzlez15

Discourse Analysis is usually defined as “language beyond the sentence” so the analysis of discourse is typically concerned with the study of language in texts and conversation. These texts have certain structures that depend on factors. On the one hand, some of them are described in terms of cohesion or the connection that exists within the text (cohesive ties). On the other hand, there must be some other factor that leads us to distinguish connected texts that make sense from those that do not. This factor is usually described as coherence.

As regards speech events, they are whatever people say and do in different circumstances, for instance, debates, interviews, conversations. In order to describe this variation, we would have to take into account the roles of speakers and hearers and their relationship. What is more, an English conversation can be described as an activity in which two or more people take turns at speaking. 

There are different expectations of conversational style and different strategies of participation in the conversation. Firstly, we should take into account The co-operative principle to make our conversational contribution such as is required and make your contribution as informative as is required. Secondly, do not say that which you believe to be false or for which you lack adequate evidence. Thirdly be relevant, clear, brief and orderly.

In relation to the features of a conversation, Hedges are words or phrases used to indicate that we´re not usually sure that what we are saying is sufficiently correct or complete. Furthermore, implicatures which involve something that it is not said e.g, are you going to the party tonight? I´ve got an exam (This imply refusal to the invitation).

In order to build interpretations of what we hear or read we can use background knowledge. For instance, schema and script. The first one is a conventional knowledge that exists in memory used in the interpretation of what we experience. The second one is the series of conventional actions that take place. E.g, If you go to a restaurant you know that you have to order the food, pay for the service, etc.

✭ CHAPTER 17

Language history and change

 

Chapter 17. Language history and change from ElianaGonzlez15

In this chapter, the writer tries to explain the different changes that languages have undergone through centuries and particularly how English evolved from Old English to Modern English. In addition to this, the reader can learn about the “family connections” among languages belonging to the same family tree, The Proto-Indo-European language.

Investigating the features of older languages, and the ways in which they developed into modern languages, involves us in the study of language history and change, also known as philology. In the nineteenth century, philology dominated the study of language and one result was the creation of “family trees” to show how languages were related. Before all of that could happen, however, there had to be discovered that a variety of languages spoken in different parts of the world were actually members of the same family.

During the nineteenth century, a term came into use to describe that common ancestor. It incorporated the notion that this was the original form (Proto) of a language that was the source of modern languages in the Indian sub-continent (Indo) and in Europe (European). Proto-Indo-European established as a long-ago “great-great-grandmother,” scholars set out to identify the branches of the Indo- European family tree, tracing the lineage of many modern languages. Indo-European is the language family with the largest population and distribution in the world, but it isn’t the only one. There are about thirty such language families containing a large number of different individual languages.

There are Family connections among these languages. To get a clearer picture of how they are related we should look at records of an older generation, like Latin and Sanskrit, from which the modern languages evolved. For example, if we use familiar letters to write out the words for father in Sanskrit (pitar), Latin (pater), and Ancient Greek (patër), some common features become apparent.

Also, it is important to mention the meaning of cognate, which is a word in one language (e.g English) but it could be a word in another language (e.g German) that has a similar form and is or was used with similar meaning. For instance, the English words mother, father and friend are cognates of the German words Mutter, Vater and Freund. Another point to mark is the comparative reconstruction. It is a method that usually referred to a reconstruction, establishes features of the ancestor of two or more related languages, belonging to the same language family, by means of the comparative method. Eg, If in a cognate set, three words begin with a /p/ sound and one word begins with a /b/ sound, then our best guess is that the majority have retained the original sound.

The most natural development principle is based on the fact that certain types of sound change are very common whereas others are extremely unlikely. As a matter of fact, sound reconstruction is the practice of establishing the features of an unattested ancestor language of one or more given languages. If we were faced with some examples from three languages. we could make a start on a comparative reconstruction by deciding what was the most likely form of the initial sound in the original source of all three. Eg, language A: cantare, Language B: cantar and Language C: chanter (“sing”).

To understand better the changes that it has undergone through time, it is essential to take a look at the history of English. It can be divided into four periods: Old English (before 1100), Middle English (1100 to 1500), Early modern English (1500 to 1700)*, and Modern English (after 1700)*. These changes can be divided into sound changes and syntactic changes. First there are four processes involved in soung change, that are not reflected after 1700 :

1) Sound loss: from the middle to modern English some sounds disappeared. the initial /h/ of many old English words was lost. Eg, hlud→loud

2) When sound changes, so the METATHESIS involves a reversal in position of two sounds in a word. Eg, frist→first

3)EPENTHESIS involves the addition of a sound in the middle of a word. Eg, spinel→spindel

4)PROTHESIS this is not found in English but it’s pretty common in forms from Latin to Spanish such as, schola→escuela. That is why Spanish speakers tend to add an /e/ sound before a /s/

Second, there are some syntactic changes:

1.Word order: in old English, we can find forms where the VERB is followed by the SUBJECT, for example FERDE HE = TRAVELED HE

2.Double negative forms were also possible now we would say “YOU NEVER GAVE” rather than “YOU NOT GAVE NEVER” 

3.the most sweeping change was the loss of a large number of inflexional suffixes, for example, the suffixes -e and -est: SEALDE (he gave) or SEALDEST (you gave)

To analyse the change through time, there are two different perspectives On the one hand, Diachronically is associated with the historical perspective of change through time (for example the history of English). On the other hand, synchronically refers to the differences within one language in different places and among different groups at the same time. (for example, FRENCH when the Normans conquered England, the French spoken in England was not the same spoken in France, it developed differently).

✭ CHAPTER 18
Language and Regional variation

  

Standard Language is an idealized variety because it has no specific region. It is the variety related to administrative, commercial, and educational centres, regardless of region. It is clearly associated with education and broadcasting in public contexts and is more easily described in terms of the written language.

Accent and Dialect are two important aspects that we have to make a difference. On the one hand, ACCENT is a distinctive way of pronouncing a language, especially one associated with a particular country, area, or social class. Some speakers have very distinct or easily recognized types of accent while others may have more subtle or less noticeable accents. The term accent is restricted to the description of aspects of the pronunciation that identify where an individual speaker is from, regionally, or socially. On the other hand, DIALECT describes the features of grammar and vocabulary as well as aspects of pronunciation. While differences in vocabulary are often easily recognized, dialect variations in the meaning of grammatical constructions are less frequently documented. Another point to mark is Dialectology that is used to distinguish between two different dialects of the same language. Some regional dialects have many dialects that exist in the same region. That is why some of them have influences from outside the region in their speech.

There are some other terms that should be noticed. According to Isogloss which is an imaginary line that divides areas/regions, they differ in words, intonation, vocabulary, and pronunciation. When a number of isoglosses come together a dialect boundary can be drawn. Furthermore, Dialect Continuum refers to speakers who move back and forth across this border area, using different varieties with some ease, may be described as BIDIALECTAL, for example: speaking two dialects. Most of us grow up with some form of bidialectal, speaking one dialect in the street among family and friends, and having to learn another dialect in school.

According to regional variation, in many countries, it is not simply a matter of two or more dialects of the language, but it can involve two or more different languages. This situation has to do with Bilingualism, which is the ability to speak and understand two or more different languages and it tends to be a feature of a minority group. However, it doesn’t have to be the result of political dominance by a group using a different language. It can simply be the result of having two parents who speak different languages. Also, a special situation exists in some countries and it is called diglossia. This involves two distinct varieties of language and there is a "low variety", acquired locally and used for everyday affairs, and a "high variety", learned in school, and used for important matters. 

Regarding this, the government, legal and educational organizations have to plan which variety or varieties of the language spoken in the country are to be used for official business. This is known as language planning and this process involves some stages. The first one is the "selection" of an official language; the second one is "codification" in which written modes establish the standard variety; the third one is "elaboration" in which this standard variety is developed for use; the fourth stage is "implementation" which is the matter of government attempts to encourage the use of the standard and finally, the "acceptance" stage in which a majority of the population have come to use the standard and to think of it as the national language.

In some areas, the standard chosen may be a variety that originally had no native speakers. It is the case of a language called Pidgin which is developed among groups of people that do do not have a language in common. But when a pidgin becomes the first language of a community, it is described as a Creole. Tok Pisin is an example of it and is spoken in Papua New Guinea. In many situations where creoles evolve, there is a range of linguistic varieties between a creole and a standard form of the lexifier (the main source of words in the pidgin). This range, known as the Post-creole continuum, usually exists in Creole-speaking communities in which the lexifier is still present and continues to have linguistic influence

✭ CHAPTER 19

Social variation in language

This chapter focuses on Social variation in language. That is why not everyone in a single geographical area speaks in the same way in every situation. People who live in the same region, but who differ in terms of education and economic status, often speak in quite different ways. This fact tells us that there are many speech communities inside a society. A speech community is a group of people who share a set of norms and expectations regarding the use of language.

The term sociolinguistics refers to the study of the relationship between language and society. It has a close connection with anthropology through the study of language and culture, and with sociology through the investigation of the role language plays in the organization of social groups and institutions. It is also tied to social psychology, particularly with regard to how attitudes, perceptions and behaviours are expressed in and out the groups.

The study of social dialects has been mainly concerned with speakers in towns and cities. In the social study of dialect, the social classes define groups of speakers as having something in common. The two main groups are generally defined as middle class, those who have more years of education and perform non-manual work and working class, those who have fewer years of education and perform manual work of some kind.

As in all dialect studies, pronunciation is a relevant feature to consider since words or structures that are regularly used in one form by working-class speakers are not used in the same form by middle-class speakers. That is why we consider class as the social variable and the pronunciation or word as the linguistic variable.

Even though each of us has an individual way of speaking, a personal dialect or idiolect, we generally tend to sound like others with whom we share similar educational backgrounds and/or occupations.

Those who spend more time in the educational system tend to have more features in their spoken language that derive from a lot of time spent with the written language. For instance: they say Mahvellous instead of Marvellous. This /r/ is one of the features that mark us as members of a particular social group, whether we realize it or not. That is why we consider it a social marker.

Speech style is also a social feature of language use. The most basic distinction in speech style is between formal uses and informal uses. Formal style is when we pay more careful attention to how we’re speaking and informal style is when we pay less attention. They are sometimes described as “careful style” and “casual style.” A change from one to the other by an individual is called style-shifting.

Style-shifting in any speech introduces the idea of “prestige”. There are 2 ways of changing the speech. On the one hand, it is Overt prestige which refers when that change is in the direction of a form that is more frequent in the speech of those perceived to have higher social status and it is considered as “better”. On the other hand, covert prestige. It a way of speech that speakers avoid changing the speech in the direction of features associated with another social group because they value the features that mark them as members of their social group.

Variation in speech style is not only a function of speakers social class and attention to the speech, but it is also influenced by their perception of their listeners. This variation is known as speech accommodation which refers to our ability to modify our speech style toward or away from the perceived style of the person we are talking to.

We can adopt a speech style that attempts to reduce social distance, described as convergence and use forms that are similar to those used by the person we are talking to. In contrast, when a speech style is used to emphasize the social distance between speakers the process is called divergence. We can make our speech style diverge from another s by using forms that are distinctly different

The register also shapes the speech style. It is a conventional way of using language that is appropriate in a specific context. It may be identified as: situational (e.g. in church), occupational (e.g. among lawyers), or topical (e.g. talking about language).

The term jargon, which is special technical vocabulary belonging to a specific social group, often defined by professional status, helps to create and maintain connections among those who see themselves as “insiders” in some way and to exclude “outsiders.”

Slang is or “colloquial speech” describes words or phrases that are used instead of more everyday terms among younger speakers and other groups with special interests. It is subject to fashion, especially among adolescents since they think that their expressions can “grow old” rather quickly. Eg, Older forms for “really good” such as groovy, hip and super were replaced by awesome, rad and wicked which gave way to dope, kickass and phat.

Social variations not only occur in British English and what we might call “European” American English but also in other speakers of English such as those who belong to a variety called African American English (AAE).

AAE is a variety used by many (not all) African Americans in many different regions of the USA. It has a number of characteristic features that, taken together, form a distinct set of social markers. In the case of AAE, those different features have often been stigmatized as “bad” language.

The term vernacular is used to characterize any non-standard spoken version of a language used typically by lower-status groups. Therefore, it is a kind of social dialect. For example the African American Vernacular English (AAVE) or other nonstandard varieties, such as “Asian American English”.

In AAVE and other English vernaculars is the tendency to reduce final consonant clusters, so that words ending in two consonants (left hand) are often pronounced as if there is only one (lef han).

Double negative construction, as in "he don’t know nothing" or "I ain’t afraid of no ghosts" since the negative is expressed twice, these structures have been condemned as “illogical” (since one negative supposedly cancels the other).

Metacognitive Analysis. from ElianaGonzlez15